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Ethics, culture and social responsibility, global code of ethics for tourism.

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" Tourism is a genuine driver of solidarity and development. Let us all fully harness its power to bring people and communities together, abiding by the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. This way tourism can keep delivering better opportunities and sustainable development for millions across the globe. "

Zurab pololikashvili, un tourism secretary-general, august 2020.

As a fundamental frame of reference for responsible and sustainable tourism, the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (GCET) is a comprehensive set of principles designed to guide key-players in tourism development. Addressed to governments, the travel industry, communities and tourists alike, it aims to help maximise the sector’s benefits while minimising its potentially negative impact on the environment, cultural heritage and societies across the globe. Adopted in 1999 by the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization, its acknowledgement by the United Nations two years later expressly encouraged UN Tourism to promote the effective follow-up of its provisions. Although not legally binding, the Code features a voluntary implementation mechanism through its recognition of the role of the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE), to which stakeholders may refer matters concerning the application and interpretation of the document.

The Code’s 10 articles amply cover the economic, social, cultural and environmental components of travel and tourism:

Tourism's contribution to mutual understanding and respect between peoples and societies

3. The host communities, on the one hand, and local professionals, on the other, should acquaint themselves with and respect the tourists who visit them and find out about their lifestyles, tastes and expectations; the education and training imparted to professionals contribute to a hospitable welcome; 4. It is the task of the public authorities to provide protection for tourists and visitors and their belongings; they must pay particular attention to the safety of foreign tourists owing to the particular vulnerability they may have; they should facilitate the introduction of specific means of information, prevention, security, insurance and assistance consistent with their needs; any attacks, assaults, kidnappings or threats against tourists or workers in the tourism industry, as well as the wilful destruction of tourism facilities or of elements of cultural or natural heritage should be severely condemned and punished in accordance with their respective national laws; 5. When travelling, tourists and visitors should not commit any criminal act or any act considered criminal by the laws of the country visited and abstain from any conduct felt to be offensive or injurious by the local populations, or likely to damage the local environment; they should refrain from all trafficking in illicit drugs, arms, antiques, protected species and products and substances that are dangerous or prohibited by national regulations; 6. Tourists and visitors have the responsibility to acquaint themselves, even before their departure, with the characteristics of the countries they are preparing to visit; they must be aware of the health and security risks inherent in any travel outside their usual environment and behave in such a way as to minimize those risks.

Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfilment

Tourism, a factor of sustainable development

Tourism, a user of the cultural heritage of mankind and contributor to its enhancement

Tourism, a beneficial activity for host countries and communities

Obligations of stakeholders in tourism development

Right to tourism

Liberty of tourist movements

Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry

Implementation of the principles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism

Full Text of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism

• ENGLISH (brochure)
• ENGLISH (passport size)
• FRENCH (brochure)
• FRENCH (passport size)
• SPANISH (brochure)
• SPANISH (passport size)
• RUSSIAN (brochure)
• RUSSIAN (passport size)
• ARABIC (brochure)
• ARABIC (passport size)

The versions of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism in non-official languages of the World Tourism Organization have been endorsed by official National Tourism Administrations of the countries and regions listed below. UN Tourism does not guarantee the accuracy of these translations with regard to those in the official languages of the Organization.

This site shall constitute the main source for the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. Other sites onto which the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism has been uploaded are not under the control of UN Tourism. UN Tourism shall not be responsible for the content of any of these sites or any link contained therein. 

The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism in non-official languages

• ALBANIA (Albanian)
• ANDORRA (Catalán)
• AZERBAIJAN (Azerbaijani)
• BANGLADESH (Bangladeshi)
• BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ( Bosnian ) ( Serbian ) ( Croatian )
• BRAZIL (Portuguese)
• BULGARIA (Bulgarian)
• CHINA (Chinese)
• CROATIA (Croatian)
• CZECH REPUBLIC (Czech)
• EGYPT (Arabic)
• FLEMISH COMMUNITY OF BELGIUM (Dutch )
• GEORGIA (Georgian)
• GERMANY (German)
• GREECE (Greek)
• HUNGARY (Hungarian)
• ICELAND (Icelandic)
• INDONESIA (Bahasa)
• ISRAEL (Hebrew)
• ITALY (Italian)
• JAPAN (Japanese)
• JORDAN (Arabic)
• LATVIA (Latvian)
• LITHUANA (Lithuanian)
• NIGERIA ( Hausa ) ( Yoruba )
• PALESTINE (Arabic)
• PHILIPPINES (Filipino)
• POLAND (Polish)
• PORTUGAL (Portuguese)
• REPUBLIC OF KOREA (Korean)
• ROMANIA (Romanian)
• SAN MARINO (Italian)
• SERBIA (Serbian)
• SLOVAKIA (Slovak)
• SLOVENIA (Slovenian)
• THAILAND (Thai)
• TURKEY (Turkish)
• UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA (Swahili)

Private Sector Signatories of the Commitment

In 2011, UN Tourism formulated a Private Sector Commitment to the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, for the signature of private enterprises worldwide. In signing the commitment, companies pledge to uphold, promote and implement the values of responsible and sustainable tourism development championed by the Code. They further undertake to report on their implementation of the Code's principles in their corporate governance to the World Committee on Tourism Ethics.

Ethics convention

The UN Tourism Convention on Tourism Ethics, the first convention of the Organization, was approved by A/RES/722(XXIII) during the 23rd General Assembly which took place in San Petersburg, Russian Federation in September 2019.

World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE)

Established in 2003, the World Committee on Tourism Ethics is the impartial body responsible for interpreting, applying and evaluating the provisions of the UN Tourism Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. For further information, please see UN Tourism General Assembly Resolution A/RES/607(XIX) of October 2011.

The Responsible Tourist

To facilitate the understanding of the principles of the  Global Code of Ethics for Tourism  by tourists, the  World Committee on Tourism Ethics prepared the " Tips for a Responsible Traveller " (2020 version)  to highlight those principles of the Code directly related to tourists, in order to help guide travellers in making their behaviour ever more responsible. 

Background of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism

The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism sets a frame of reference for the responsible and sustainable development of world tourism. It draws inspiration from many similar declarations and industry codes that have come before and it adds new thinking that reflects our changing society at the beginning of the 21st century.

Related links

• UN Tourism ETHICS AWARD
• RESOLUTIONS ON THE GLOBAL CODE OF ETHICS FOR TOURISM
• Implementation Reports on the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism
• 20th Anniversary of the Global Code of Ethics in Tourism

Ethics in Tourism

Cite this chapter.

• David A. Fennell 5  

Part of the book series: CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance ((CSEG))

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This chapter argues that ethics provides an alternative way in which to better understand an act upon tourism industry dilemmas (as an alternative to the over-reliance on the impacts literature). There is a rich foundation of ethics knowledge emerging in the tourism literature, and this foundation continues to expand at a modest rate. In an effort to present this knowledge in an organised manner, six main sections have been developed: (1) foundations and theories of ethics and tourism; (2) applied ethics and tourism; (3) types of tourism and ethics; (4) ethics in tourism education and research; (5) sustainability ethics; and (6) tourism and animal ethics. The chapter concludes by suggesting that there is often a disconnect between theory and practice when it comes to ethics. This disconnect makes it especially important for educators to adopt moral theory in the curriculum in developing the proper character for learners who may later become practitioners.

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David A. Fennell

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Fennell, D.A. (2015). Ethics in Tourism. In: Moscardo, G., Benckendorff, P. (eds) Education for Sustainability in Tourism. CSR, Sustainability, Ethics & Governance. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-47470-9_3

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, a systematic review of ethical issues in hospitality and tourism innovation.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights

ISSN : 2514-9792

Article publication date: 25 March 2022

Issue publication date: 26 August 2022

The purpose of this paper is to identify the state of academic research on ethical issues connected to innovation in hospitality. Through a systematic review of the literature on this topic, the authors aim to offer a synthesis of research approaches and to provide proposals for future research.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors conducted searches in four different databases, to select articles based on the inclusion criteria: the articles should combine the topics of innovation and hospitality/tourism and have been published between 2011 and 2021. Through an iterative screening process, the authors selected 71 research articles.

This paper distinguishes two categories of approaches to the topic: a first and predominant approach in which innovations are derived from evolving ethical insights and a more dispersed second category that explores the ethical implications of innovations. In the first category, articles about ethical leadership represent the greatest number, followed by those about corporate social responsibility (CSR). Almost half of the papers studied followed qualitative methods.

Research limitations/implications

The authors argue that the prevalent perspective represents a specific interpretation of the social role of private companies, but that the ethical effects of commercial or technological innovations deserve more attention. Despite a rigorous procedure in reviewing the literature systematically, they also discuss that there are multiple relevant debates that do not refer explicitly to ethical aspects, but that should be included in the topic.

Practical implications

Addressing the research gaps in ethics and innovation in hospitality must provide practitioners with an understanding of the ramifications of their innovations and with criteria for ethical decision-making.

Social implications

The current orientation of the debate underscores ethical innovations in hospitality and tourism, whilst ethical risks of other developments in these industries may remain understudied.

Originality/value

This review updates earlier reviews of ethical issues in hospitality and tourism, whilst the link to innovation and the distinction of two categories, based on the causal direction between ethical considerations and innovation, identify an imbalance in the study of the topic.

• Ethical leadership
• Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
• Ethical consumer behavior
• Tourism growth
• Technological innovation

Oskam, J.A. and De Visser-Amundson, A. (2022), "A systematic review of ethical issues in hospitality and tourism innovation", Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights , Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 782-803. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-11-2021-0305

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TOURISM ETHICS: ASPECTS OF TOURISM

2020, International Journal of Philosophy and Social Values

David A. Fennell’s book on Tourism Ethics is an affirmation of the phenomenon of globalization and cosmopolitanism at work in tourism. It is the task of tourist‑philosophers, travelers, tourism scholars and practitioners, and policy makers to develop a tourism industry that values more than just profit and pleasure for the sake of the common good. The book is one of the most in‑depth introductory text on ethics as applied to tourism. It provides sufficient philosophical ground for examining the deep philosophical perspectives on human nature revealed in tourism – that we are ethical and rational beings by nature, as we are global and cosmopolitan people. It is a demonstration of how we can do philosophizing, critical thinking, creative thinking, and reflective thinking in traveling.

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Asian Journal of Tourism Research

Chaozhi Zhang

The concept of responsibility has always been closely tied to notions of powers and rights. However, current responsibility models such as ' corporate social responsibility' , ' responsible tourism' , and ' destination social responsibility' are limited in their explanations of stakeholders' powers and rights in the heritage tourism context. The current conceptualization of heritage responsibility poses a number of challenges, such as complicated subjects, ambivalent direction, and vague logic. Moreover, engaging with problems such as the asymmetric relationship between responsibility and rights, and the vague relationship between subject and object of responsibility, has been hampered by a lack of sufficient philosophical grounding. The paper addresses this gap by reanalyzing responsibility in the heritage tourism context using Levinas' ethics of responsibility. This study argues the following: a) Heritage responsibility is an ethical responsibility that agents undertake in the process of identifying, interpreting and representing heritage. This type of responsibility points not only to the subject-object (heritage) level, but also the intersubjective level, and consists of not only responsibility-for-the-self, but also responsibility-for-the-other. b) Heritage responsibility, from the perspective of Levinas' ethics of responsibility, features passivity, infinity, asymmetry, and pre-originariness, which accounts for the unequal distribution of rights and responsibilities in heritage conservation. c) Given these features of heritage responsibility, the discursive power of stakeholders must be recognized in order to ensure that agents with authority assume their share of responsibility. This paper further discusses the relationship between heritage responsibility and self-identity, cultural identity, and discursive power relations, and outlines issues for future research. Abstract: The concept of responsibility has always been closely tied to notions of powers and rights. However, current responsibility models such as 'corporate social responsibility', 'responsible tourism', and 'destination social responsibility' are limited in their explanations of stakeholders' powers and rights in the heritage tourism context. The current conceptualization of heritage responsibility poses a number of challenges, such as complicated subjects, ambivalent direction, and vague logic. Moreover, engaging with problems such as the asymmetric relationship between responsibility and rights, and the vague relationship between subject and object of responsibility, has been hampered by a lack of sufficient philosophical grounding. The paper addresses this gap by reanalyzing responsibility in the heritage tourism context using Levinas' ethics of responsibility. This study argues the following: a) Heritage responsibility is an ethical responsibility that agents undertake in the process of identifying, interpreting and representing heritage. This type of responsibility points not only to the subject-object (heritage) level, but also the intersubjective level, and consists of not only responsibility-for-the-self, but also responsibility-for-the-other. b) Heritage responsibility, from the perspective of Levinas' ethics of responsibility, features passivity, infinity, asymmetry, and pre-originariness, which accounts for the unequal distribution of rights and responsibilities in heritage conservation. c) Given these features of heritage responsibility, the discursive power of stakeholders must be recognized in order to ensure that agents with authority assume their share of responsibility. This paper further discusses the relationship between heritage responsibility and self-identity, cultural identity, and discursive power relations, and outlines issues for future research.

António S . Queirós

In the framework of the globalization of tourism this chapter discuss the concepts of modern Ethics and Moral, on a critical perspective to the dominant standpoint that set the morale in the order of the rules and social conventions and leave the ethics on the field of personal experience. Critical essay postulates three fundamental theses: 1. The environmental philosophy builds a new ontology created by the critique of anthropocentrism. 2. But, only their articulation with a new epistemology, founded in the critique of ethnocentrism, could lead to a new ethics universal theory. 3. However, the applied ethics of environmental philosophy needs a new global political ethics shaped on the critique against political alienation. Consequently

Myung Ja Kim

The purpose of this study is to examine the decision-making process for responsible tourism (RT) using a theoretical framework of the Model of Goal-directed Behavior (MGB). Because ethics is essential to protect the natural environment, respect the local culture, and benefit local communities that are significantly important for RT, this study also investigates the role of perceived ethics in the decision-making processes of responsible tourists by incorporating the three ethics into the original MGB. A quota sampling method was employed based on gender, age, and residential district, and the data were analyzed using a partial least squares-structural equation modeling approach. Results suggest that perceived ethics (economic, socio-cultural, and environmental concerns) has a significant effect on attitudes toward, desire for, and behavioral intention to participate in RT. Subjective norms and anticipated emotions have significant impacts on the desire for RT, and perceived behavioral control over RT also influences both desire and behavioral intention. In particular, desire is an important antecedent in predicting behavioral intention of responsible tourists. This study contributes to extending knowledge of responsible tourist behavior and identifies the significant role of perceived ethics in RT. Further, this study provides managerial implications to RT stakeholders (e.g., locals, tourism businesses, tourists).

Current Issues in Tourism

Scott Cohen , Erik Cohen

This review article starts with an examination of the shifting nature of tourism discourse from the 1960s up to the present, and then focuses on seven topics that we consider to be on the forefront of current developments in the sociological study of tourism: emotions, sensory experiences, materialities, gender, ethics, authentication and the philosophical groundings of tourism theories. We find that in recent years the sociology of tourism was marked by three general trends: the growing application of specific novel theories from other fields to tourism, the examination of new facets of touristic phenomena, and an intensified inquiry into the status of tourism as an intellectual or cultural project. We conclude that while the application of a range of novel theoretical perspectives and facets largely reflects the postmodern move away from binary thinking and concepts, the sociology of tourism still makes little contribution back to the discipline of sociology, and will need to address important emergent topics such as deglobalization and current nationalistic movements toward isolationism, to do so.

Springer International Publishing

Markus Frischhut

This open access book seeks to identify the ethical spirit of European Union (EU) law, a context in which we can observe a trend towards increasing references to the terms ‘ethics’ and ‘morality’. This aspect is all the more important because EU law is now affecting more and more areas of national law, including such sensitive ones as the patentability of human life. Especially when unethical behaviour produces legal consequences, the frequent lack of clearly defined concepts remains a challenge, particularly against the background of the principle of legal certainty. This raises the question to which extent the content of these references is determined and whether it is possible to identify an ethical spirit of EU law. Answering that question, in turn, entails addressing the following questions: In references to ethics concerning EU law, can we identify references to a particular theory of practical philosophy at all; and, if so, to one or more normative ethical theories (deontology, consequentialism, or virtue ethics)? Further, should these non-legal concepts be imported in an unaltered way (“absolute approach”), or be adapted to the legal context (“relative approach”)? This book explores the different layers of EU law (primary law, agreements, secondary law, and tertiary law), including the role of ethics in EU lawmaking and in EU case law, as well as the implementation of relevant EU directives in selected Member States. In addition to the above-mentioned normative philosophical lens, the book also analyzes the findings from the legal lens of EU integration, i.e., especially EU values, human rights and the cornerstone of human dignity.

PALGRAVE MACMILLAN

Maximiliano E. Korstanje

This book centers on the power of mythical narratives and technology in creating the idea of a world that should be purged. The introduction of sin, the fall and other disruptive conflict have led mankind towards a world of scarcity, where suffering and sacrifice prevail. The author analyzes this apocalypse theory, which describes humans’ perversion by the use of technology, self-consciousness and knowledge. Based on an anthropological viewpoint, the book not only discusses the nature of bottom days, but explores other related sub-themes such as capitalism, terrorism, dark tourism, the essence of evil and the power of prophecy, coining the term thana-capitalism to denote a new stage of capitalism where death is the main commodity exchanged.

Dr. Poll THEERAPAPPISIT

In tourism research work and dialogues, religion and ethics have traditionally provided marginal contributions to the field of study or else have been ignored topics. The inhuman terrorism events of September 11, 2001 and recent bombings in Indonesia have spotlighted the powerful links between religion and development, leading to big questions for the tourism industry as to how the industry can contribute to an enhanced sense of peace and security for travellers in this new century. This paper focuses on the debates over emerging problems of tourism development and the potential contribution from ethical and religious discourses to resolve the root cause of development problems, particularly in less developed countries. The findings from fieldwork in Thailand suggest that religious and ethical principles could and should be applied in development planning processes towards peace tourism. Buddhist ethics applied to alternative tourism development options is particularly discussed. The results reveal an emerging research agenda in relation to a role for ethics education and training in tourism practices.

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• What is ethical tourism and why is it important?

Ethical tourism is on everyone’s mind these days. Over the past decade or two, people have become far more conscious of their actions. Whether it’s by turning off the lights when we leave the room, recycling our empty cereal box, not riding elephants in Thailand or eating at local restaurants in Costa Rica, there are many ways that we can be ethical tourists.

However, whilst you might read simplistic articles that give you a list of ‘things that you should do to be an ethical tourist’, these are exactly that- over simplified. In reality, ethical tourism is a multifaceted concept that requires a deep understanding if a person truly wants to demonstrate ethical behaviour.

In this article, I will tell you what is meant by the term ethical tourism, why ethical tourism has become more prominent around the world and what ethical issues the tourism industry is up against. I will also give you lots of examples of ethical tourism, discuss the criticisms of ethical tourism (because it is not perfect!) and then give you that infamous list- how to be an ethical tourist.

Don’t want to read it all? Use the list below to scroll to the bit that interests you most.

What is ethical tourism?

A definition of ethical tourism

Why is ethical tourism important?

The rise in ethical tourism

The global code of ethics for tourism, distribution of income, access to services and facilities, exploitation of children, exploitation of women, sex tourism, animal welfare, environmental destruction, cultural impacts of tourism, agritourism, charity tourism, community-based tourism, cultural tourism, pro-poor tourism, rural tourism, slow tourism, sustainable tourism, volunteer tourism, tourists are naive, small-scale projects don’t solve larger-scale problems, the subjectivity of the term ‘ethical’, ethical operators may have unethical motives, can tourism ever really be ethical, #1 be kind to the environment, #2 be kind to society, #3 be kind to the economy, ethical tourism: key takeaways, ethical tourism: faqs, ethical tourism: further reading.

Ethical tourism is a concept that has been developed in response to the critiques of mass tourism . Essentially, ethical tourism encourages tourists to move away from’ the four Ss’ (Sun, Sea, Sand and Sex), and exchange these for ‘the three Ts’ (Travelling, Trekking and Trucking).

To put it simply, ethical tourism is a form of responsible tourism . Ethical tourists consider the impact of their actions with regards to the three pillars of sustainable tourism – the environment, the economy and society. They minimise negative impacts and maximise the positive impacts.

Sounds great, doesn’t it? There problem is however, that many people are undereducated in these areas. Tourists are inherently naive. A person may think that they are demonstrating ethical behaviours and adhering to ethical practices, but in reality this may not be the case. This is through no fault of the tourist. The simple issue is that they do not know everything that they need to know in order to be an ‘ethical tourist’….

So lets delve into the concept of ethical tourism a little deeper….

As with many concepts that I attempt to define here on this website, there is a degree of ambiguity over what ethical tourism actually means. It is somewhat subjective. Ultimately, what one person may believe is ‘ethical’, another person may not .

This problem is particularly evident when we compare the way that the term ethical tourism is understood between those who live in the global north to those who live in developing countries.

The concept of ethical tourism has been developed predominantly by Western nations, in response to global concerns about the impact of mass tourism and the negative impacts that this often has. But whilst these problems are increasingly recognised in the northern hemisphere, many countries in the south lack the education and experience to facilitate the same level of comprehension. This has resulted in different interpretations of the term ‘ethical tourism’ around the world.

Nonetheless, there have been some attempts at providing a universal definition of ethical tourism.

The World Tourism Organisation (1999) state that;

‘The understanding and promotion of the ethical values common to humanity, with an attitude of tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, philosophical and moral beliefs, are both the foundation and consequence of responsible tourism’.

Ryan (2002, p. 17) further suggests that although it may be easy for tour operators to agree with the principles outlined by demands for an ethical approach to tourism development, it is sometimes hard to implement them because of the complex and ‘pragmatic issues of management’. He argues that although laudable in intention, ethical tourism has been an extremely difficult niche product to provide.

Harold Goodwin, the director of the International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT), supports this, reporting that ‘currently what tour operators are looking for help with is ways to make themselves more responsible’ (Goodwin, 2003).

This demonstrates that there are also disparities between the way that ethical tourism is understood (either intentionally or naively) between the different stakeholders in tourism . Businesses, for example, may promote ethical practices as a means of enhancing their corporate image, whereas tourists may have a true and natural desire to lessen their carbon footprint, for instance.

Ethical tourism is paramount.

Ultimately, we have been destroying our world for centuries and the pace at which this has happened has increased exponentially in recent years. We simply cannot continue to act in the way that we have been.

Yes, people are are recycling more than they used to. Governments are funding the building of solar and wind power plants as an alternative to coal. Biofuels are being developed for use in aircraft and electric car technology is rapidly developed. Children are taught to be ‘global citizens’ at school. BUT we are not doing enough.

If you haven’t yet watched the Netflix series Travellers , then you should do. This dystopian drama gives us insight into what our future world might look like if we continue living the way that we are… I highly recommend it.

If we want to continue to travel the world, then we must do it responsibly . And this is what ethical tourism is all about…

Ethical tourism is not a new concept, but it is one that has become more recognised in recent years.

Over the last 30 years or so, ethical tourism has become an important discussion point for academics, businesses, Governments and the general public, plenty of people are talking about it now, from ethical family travel to how to use less plastic , ethical tourism is much more in the public eye than it once was.

It’s scary to think that when our parents travelled in their youth, there was little regard for ethics. In fact, holidays were seen as a time to ‘let loose’ and to be ‘care-free’. Turning off the lights when you left a room was often the last thing on a tourist’s mind.

Fast-forward a generation and the picture is quite different….

The emergence and growth of the ‘ethical consumer’ has been apparent since the 1990s (Shaw & Clarke, 1999). In response, companies began to realise the importance of social responsibility and began to implement ethical practices into their business models. Sadly, this often means that companies have little regard for ethics, but instead their motives are profit-driven. But nonetheless, ethical practices are adopted, which is a good thing!

Ethical tourism over the years has moved from a micro form of niche tourism to a macro niche in tourism . However, it remains just that- a niche.

However, there are a number of predictions that show an accelerated growth in the interest of ethical tourism in the near future. Therefore, I predict that it is only a matter of time before ethical tourism is integrated into the mass tourism model .

In fact, there is a strong argument to suggest that ethical tourism should be part of an attitude towards tourism , rather than a niche product.

So how to we monitor and measure ethical behaviour? What are the guidelines for ethical tourism? Is there a code of conduct?

These are all very important questions. The problem that we have with broad and subjective concepts, such as ethical tourism, is definition and measurement. When is something ethical and who decides?

Unfortunately, there is not one set code of conduct for stakeholders in tourism to work towards. This makes for somewhat murky waters… nonetheless, there are a number of guidelines and codes that are used in different spheres and contexts.

Some examples of codes of conduct used in ethical tourism include:

• Global Code of Ethics for Tourism – United Nations
• Tips for Responsible travellers – World Committee on Tourism Ethics (ECTE)
• Putting Ethics into Practice – Tearfund
• The Countryside Commissions’ Code – UK Government
• Code of Ethics – Conservation International
• Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism – United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• Values in Action: WWF’s Core Standards of Performance – World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
• Tour Operators’ Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development  (TOI)  – United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO)

The purpose of codes, such as these, is to raise awareness and to educate the tourist.

They do also play an important role in informing other stakeholders of tourism, such as private organisations of Government. Codes of conduct help to explain how it is possible for people to support the management of tourism in a sustainable, and ethical, manner.

Major ethical issues in tourism

There are many many ethical issues within tourism. After all, tourism is one of, if the the , biggest industry in the world- so there are bound to be a diverse range of issues.

Below, I have briefly outlined some of the most common ethical issues in tourism.

There is lots of money to be made in tourism. However, the income is rarely distributed evenly.

More often than not, the vast majority of wealth made from tourism goes to large, Western corporations. Even if we concentrate on an area of tourism that is in the developing world, much of the income from tourism is still swallowed up by international organisations, known as economic leakage .

Inherently, most of the jobs in the travel and tourism industry pay low salaries. Think- the chef in your hotel restaurant, the maids who clean your beds and the theme park ride operator at the fun fair. None of these people are likely to be paid high salaries.

Tourism can also cause other negative economic impacts , such as gentrification (when local people are pushed out of the area that they have traditionally lived in because the cost of living has risen too much). Tourism can encourage theft, gambling and cause people to leave their traditional methods of income generation behind (such as farming) in exchange for tourism.

The sex tourism industry in Thailand is a good example of this, where young girls frequently leave their homes in rural areas to join the sex trade in the city in search of a more prosperous economic outlook.

The tourism industry is known to use and abuse local areas and resources. This is often at the detriment of the local population .

Take golf tourism, for example. Golf courses require a huge amount of water in order to be maintained. In some parts of the world, where there are water shortages, this means that local people may go without essential water needed for cooking, washing etc at the expense of the tourism industry.

Sadly, children are exploited with the tourism industry more often than we care to admit.

Have you ever bought an item from a kid who is a street seller? If the answer is yes, then you are helping to fuel this exploitation…. if the parents know that their kids can make money from tourism, they will continue to keep them out of school and working on the streets.

There are many jobs that kids do that are indirectly linked to the tourism industry too. From working in factories to farm work to begging, to sex tourism.

Similarly, many women are exploited within the tourism industry.

The most obvious example is this is through sex tourism , which is a prominent industry in South East Asia, amongst other parts of the world.

However, there are also many other ways that women are treated unfairly in the tourism industry. Most of the top jobs are done by men and women salaries, on average, are significantly lower around the world than men’s salaries.

As I mentioned before, the sex tourism industry is pretty significant. While many people like to pretend it doesn’t exist, the truth is that this is a multi-million Dollar industry.

However, many people who work in the sex trade do not want to be there. Some are forced into this line of work against their will. Some are only children.

Wildlife tourism has moved towards the forefront of consumer awareness in recent years. People are now largely empathetic of animal rights and welfare.

People are now preferring to visit safari parks over zoos, going to animal sanctuaries and conservation projects and volunteering their time to help, rather than hinder.

Nonetheless, maltreatment of animals does still happen in many contexts around the world; from dolphins in captivity to cat cafes to riding elephants.

It’s ironic really that tourism all too often destroys the environment that it relies on.

For tourism to be ethical, stakeholders need to ensure that any damage to the environment is minimised. This includes a range of aspects such as reducing CO2 emissions to picking up litter to reducing the amount of plastic that we use.

There are many ways that tourism can adversely affect culture .

Authenticity in tourism is often a controversial topic, as is globalisation . Tourists should be mindful of local cultures, religions and customs and try not to offend people during their travels too.

Examples of ethical tourism

So, now that we understand what ethical tourism is, lets look at some examples of ethical tourism in practice. Below, I have outlined some of the major examples of ethical tourism. Please note that this list is not exhaustive and not all of these types of tourism are entirely ethical 100% of the time.

Agritourism, also referred to as agricultural tourism, argotourism or farm tourism is a subset of the rural tourism industry. It focusses on agricultural operations and involves tourist activities based in or around farms. This includes activities such as wine tours, horseback riding, clay bird shooting, animal petting and historical agricultural exhibits.

Charity tourism, also referred to as aid tourism, is a form of travel which centres around charitable activity. It can involve helping those in need directly by joining a  volunteer tourism  programme, for example. It can also involve booking tours and travels or providing financial donations through organisations and tour operators which promote charitable tourism, such as  Tourism Concern ,  Barefoot or the  Travel Foundation .

Community based tourism is a term used to describe holidays that benefit both the traveller and the destination. Community based tourism is based on the premise of collective responsibility, allowing the local community to have an active involvement in the development and management of tourism in the area.It often involves rural, poor and economically marginalised populations, where individuals are given the opportunity to raise money through work as land managers, entrepreneurs, produce and service providers and employees.

Cultural tourism  is the act of travellers visiting particular destinations in order to experience and learn about a particular culture. This can include many activities such as; attending events and festivals, visiting museums and tasting the local food and drinks. Cultural tourism can also be an unintentional part of the tourism experience, whereby cultural immersion (with the local people, their language, customs, cuisine etc) is an inevitable part of a person’s holiday.

Ecotourism is a form of tourism directed at preserving fragile environments and eco-systems. Ecotourism commonly occurs in threatened natural environments, where the intention is to provide conservation. Ecotourism efforts include building tourist facilities that have minimal impact on the natural environment, adopting the use of products such as compost toilets or solar-powered electricity. Ecotourism has become somewhat of a ‘buzz word’ in recent years and is closely related to the concept of  sustainable tourism .

Geotourism is tourism that sustains or enhances the geographical features of a destination. Geotourism adopts the principles of sustainable tourism , with a focus on the synergy of the destination- it aims to bring together all of the elements of geographical character to create a fulfilling and rewarding tourism product. Examples of geo tourism may be holiday homes that are run locally and built with local products (e.g. stones) or local produce being sold to tourists.

Pro-poor tourism is not a sector of the tourism industry per se, rather it is an approach to the industry. Pro-poor tourism, often shortened to PPT, intends to provide net benefits to the poor. These can be economic, social or environmental benefits and can be achieved through a range of means such as taking part in charity tourism or purchasing a holiday package through a charitable operator.

According to the World Tourism Organisation, rural tourism is ‘a type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s experience is related to a wide range of products generally linked to nature-based activities, agriculture, rural lifestyle / culture, angling and sightseeing’. Rural tourism takes place in non-urban areas such as national parks, forests or mountain areas. Popular rural tourism activities include cycling, walking or hiking.

Slow tourism  is based on the concept of speed. It involves travelling for a prolonged period of time at a slow pace, allowing the tourist a deep, authentic and cultural experience. An alternative tourism form, slow travel is typically associated with sustainable practices, taking into consideration the impacts of travel on the environment, society and economy. Slow travel can be undertaken in any destination, but is particularly popular amongst traditional backpacking routes in destinations such as South East Asia, Central America or Australia .

Sustainable tourism , similarly to responsible tourism, relies on the premise of taking care of the environment, society and economy. Sustainable tourism principles intend to minimise the negative impacts of tourism, whilst maximising the positive impacts. As defined in the Bruntland Report, sustainable tourism is ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’.

Volunteer tourism  is a type of tourism whereby an individual will travel abroad to a destination that is predominantly considered ‘undeveloped’ or ‘developing’ to offer their support to those in need. According to Steven Wearing, the founder of the concept, a volunteer tourist undertakes holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments or research into aspects of society or environment.

WWOOFING  stands for world wide opportunities on organic farms. It is a form of homestay tourism, whereby the tourist works on the farm in exchange for free board. WWOOFING has grown as an industry in recent years and is particularly popular in Australia, where many international tourists undertake agricultural work in order to extend the duration of their working holiday visa.

Criticisms of ethical tourism

Ethical tourism is all about doing good . Sounds great, doesn’t it? Too good to be true even? Well, perhaps it is…

There are, in actual fact, many criticisms of ethical tourism. Yes, it done well it has some fantastic positive impacts. But all too often this is not the case. The most common criticisms of ethical tourism include; the naivety of tourists, the fact that small-scale projects often can not solve large-scale problems and the subjectivity of the term ethical tourism. In addition to this, some people actually question whether achieving true ethical tourism is even possible!

Many tourists don’t want to exhibit unethical behaviour. The problem is that they simply do not realise that they are doing it!

I remember when I first moved to Thailand to teach English and I leant that it was culturally offensive to show the soles of your feet. I was horrified to learn this, given that I had been sat on the floor in temples and other public places with my legs straight out in front of me- and soles completely on show! This is one example of how tourists are often ignorant to local customs and traditions, and can this easily cause offence, albeit in unintentionally.

Wildlife tourism is another good example. For years, tourists would ride elephants, completely unaware of how much the elephant would suffer in order to provide them with this pleasure. Fortunately, there is now a lot more awareness in this area.

Many examples of ethical tourism, such as volunteer tourism projects or areas which are adopting geotourism principles are small in size. Yes, there are positive impacts to such projects, but they are barely a pin-prick into the bigger problems at hand.

Take pro-poor tourism, for example. There are some fantastic initiatives around the world, however these projects are small. Every little helps, for sure- but they only have a small impact on the wider issue and problems.

What is ethical behaviour?

Part of the problem with ethical tourism is that different people have different perceptions of what is ethical and what is not. In China , for example- it is deemed as perfectly ok to keep animals in small enclosures. Whereas, in much of the Western world, tourists would look upon this in horror.

Perception of ethics vary around the world and between different types of people . And a large part of this is done to education and awareness. If you have never been taught that fois gras is made by force feeding geese to fatten their liver, then you might be perfectly happy to eat it. If you have not seen the documentaries about how plastic is filling our oceans then you may have no problem with using a plastic disposable straw.

The point I am trying to make is that people view ethical tourism and understand ethical tourism in different ways. This includes not only tourists, but also tour operators , travel agents , tour guides, Governments and a range of other tourism industry stakeholders.

The last criticism of ethical tourism that is worthwhile mentioning here is motivation .

Why does someone make a commitment to be an ethical tourist or to promote ethical tourism? Is it because they genuinely care about said ethical issues? Or is it because they are making money from it is some way?

We live in a world where consumerism and commercialisation are key. The capitalist marketplace demands competitive prices, innovative practices, superior marketing and a USP.

One way of achieving these things is for organisations to promote themselves as ethical operators. This enhances their corporate social image and makes them look more appealing to customers. In turn, this increases business and makes the organisation more money.

So, does the organisation who is promoting ethical tourism really care about ethical tourism? Maybe they do care, but I suspect that profit comes before ethics in most instances. Sad, but true.

So we have concluded that ethical tourism is subjective and difficult to measure. Does that mean that there is really such a thing as ethical tourism? Can any tourism be entirely and truthfully ethical? what does this actually mean?

Monbiot (1999) makes a valid argument in this regard, stating that; ‘tourism is, by and large, an unethical activity, which allows us to have fun at everyone else’s expense’.  Hickman (2002) further concludes that tourism is inherently a ‘self centred act’. Butcher (2009) takes this one step further by questioning whether ethical tourism is actually a good thing at all, in his chapter entitled ‘Against Ethical Tourism’ in the book Philosophical Issues in Tourism .

Perhaps the answer is that ethical tourism should not be seen as a form of tourism per se , but instead should be approach that is taken in an appropriate way, depending on the specific context. It is certainly not a black and white issue… and is certainly an area worthy of further discussion.

How to be an ethical tourist

I would like to end this article with a practical overview of some of the things that tourists, and other tourism industry stakeholders, can do to exhibit ethical behaviour.

It is extremely difficult (if possible at all) to be 100% ethical for 100% of the time. BUT, there are many things that we CAN do to help to protect and preserve the environment, society and the economy. Keep reading to find out what YOU can do to help.

If you want to be an ethical tourist, you must demonstrate a commitment to reducing any negative impacts on the environment. Some of the things that you can do include:

• Don’t buy animal souvenirs
• Don’t touch animals
• Don’t feed wild animals
• Avoid unethical wildlife tourism
• Don’t drop litter
• Don’t touch coral
• Try slow tourism
• Opt for eco-friendly transportation options
• Turn off the lights
• Try ecotourism
• Avoid plastic
• Don’t waste water
• Stick to main paths

Ethical tourists also have a care and consideration for society and the communities that they interact with as part of their tourist experience. Here are some things that you can do to be an ethical tourist:

• Learn the local language
• Be respectful of local customs and traditions
• Immerse yourself into local life
• Be sensitive
• Don’t give to beggars
• Treat people fairly
• Avoid sex tourism
• Don’t take photos of people without their permission

Lastly, an ethical tourist should be mindful of their economic behaviour. Here are some things that you can do to ensure that you have a positive impact, where possible:

• Avoid multinational chain hotels
• Limit economic leakage where you can
• Avoid all-inclusive holidays
• Leave positive reviews for local businesses
• Consider who you are booking your holiday with
• Haggle fairly
• Ethical tourism involves making responsible and sustainable choices when traveling.
• It is important to respect local cultures, traditions, and customs when visiting a new place.
• Supporting local communities by buying locally-made products and using locally-owned businesses can have a positive impact on the local economy.
• Minimising your carbon footprint by using eco-friendly transportation options and reducing waste can help reduce the impact of tourism on the environment.
• Being mindful of the impact of your visit on the local environment and taking steps to minimize damage, such as not littering or damaging natural habitats, is important.
• Engaging in ethical wildlife tourism, such as visiting sanctuaries and conservation centers, can help support animal welfare and conservation efforts.
• Respecting the privacy and dignity of local people is important when taking photographs or engaging in other tourist activities.
• Supporting ethical tourism organisations and initiatives can help promote sustainable and ethical tourism practices.
• Learning about the history and culture of the destination you are visiting can help you appreciate and respect it more.
• Ultimately, ethical tourism involves making conscious and informed decisions that benefit the destination and its people, while minimising negative impacts on the environment and local communities.

Lastly, lets finish off this article by answering some of the most common questions on this subject.

Ethical tourism refers to tourism that promotes responsible and sustainable practices that benefit the environment and local communities.

How is ethical tourism different from other types of tourism?

Ethical tourism is different from other types of tourism because it places an emphasis on promoting sustainable and ethical practices, while minimising negative impacts on the environment and local communities.

Ethical tourism is important because it helps promote sustainable and ethical practices in the tourism industry, which can benefit both the environment and local communities.

What are some examples of ethical tourism practices?

Examples of ethical tourism practices include supporting local businesses, reducing waste and using eco-friendly transportation options, respecting local cultures and traditions, and engaging in ethical wildlife tourism.

How can tourism negatively impact the environment and local communities?

Tourism can negatively impact the environment and local communities through overdevelopment, pollution, cultural commodification, and economic exploitation.

Can ethical tourism benefit local communities?

Yes, ethical tourism can benefit local communities by supporting local businesses, creating job opportunities, and promoting sustainable practices.

What is responsible tourism?

Responsible tourism is a type of tourism that aims to promote ethical and sustainable practices that benefit local communities and minimise negative impacts on the environment.

Is ethical tourism more expensive than traditional tourism?

Ethical tourism may not necessarily be more expensive than traditional tourism, as it depends on the specific activities and accommodations chosen.

What is the role of governments and tourism organisations in promoting ethical tourism?

Governments and tourism organisations have a role in promoting ethical tourism by creating policies and guidelines that encourage sustainable and ethical practices, and by educating tourists on ethical tourism practices.

How can tourists engage in ethical tourism?

Tourists can engage in ethical tourism by being mindful of their impact on the environment and local communities, supporting local businesses, engaging in ethical wildlife tourism, and respecting local cultures and traditions.

Ethical tourism is a fascinating and important subject that is only going to grow in the coming years. Want to learn more? Check out the resources below:

• What Sustainable Tourism Is + Why It Is The Most Important Consideration Right Now
• The Shocking Truth About Sex tourism
• What is sports tourism and why it is so big?
• What is responsible tourism and why does it matter?

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• Defending genetic disenhancement in xenotransplantation
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2121-7167 Daniel Rodger 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0592-2592 Daniel J Hurst 2 ,
• Christopher A Bobier 3 ,
• Xavier Symons 4
• 1 Institute of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Department of Family Medicine , Rowan University , Stratford , New Jersey , USA
• 3 College of Medicine , Central Michigan University , Mount Pleasant , Michigan , USA
• 4 Plunkett Centre for Ethics , Australian Catholic University , Darlinghurst , New South Wales , Australia
• Correspondence to Mr Daniel Rodger, Allied Health Sciences, London South Bank University School of Health and Social Care, London, UK; daniel.rodger{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/jme-2024-110362

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We read the four commentaries on our article with much interest. 1 Each response provides stimulating discussion, and below we have attempted to respond to specific issues that they have raised. We regret that we are not able to respond point-by-point to each of them. However, before our responses, it may benefit the reader if we briefly summarise the claims in our article. First, we hold two presuppositions: (1) xenotransplantation research will inevitably continue for the foreseeable future, and (2) causing suffering and pain requires sufficient justification and should be mitigated where possible. Second, based on these two presuppositions, we posit an argument for the further genetic modification of pigs for xenotransplantation that would eliminate certain experiences of pain and suffering should it become possible to do so.

Gibson, 2 in his commentary, is sceptical—for good reason—that ‘xenotransplantation-motivated disenhancement would be a temporary stopgap until the organ and tissue shortage problem is solved via less contentious means’. Gibson’s argument is grounded in the fact that the biotechnology industry—of which xenotransplantation is part of—is beholden to economic and market forces that would likely perpetuate constancy, thereby making it difficult to transition away from using disenhanced genetically engineered pigs for xenotransplantation. This point is well taken, as we are aware that the potential for significant profit is a driving force within this nascent field. Hence, while we may hope that xenotransplantation is only a stopgap to less contentious human organ alternatives, the reality is that this may not end up being the case. Ultimately, this will be contingent on the development, cost and efficacy of any non-animal alternatives. Importantly, we do not think his point undermines our argument that genetic disenhancement would be ethical.

Cordeiro introduces the ethics of care and brings it into dialogue with our article, 3 arguing that ‘eliminating the capacity to experience negative experiential states such as pain and suffering also risks eliminating a large part (if not all) of their capacity for positive experiences including care-based relationships’. We do not disagree, and again stress that our proposed solution is not ‘ideal’ in any sense, but it does seem to us, on balance, to result in less-negative experiences for the pig. The issue of whether piecemeal disenhancement will entail the loss of positive experiences is an empirical but presently hypothetical conjecture. A second point that Cordeiro makes is about the relationship between the humans caring for the genetically engineered pigs and the pigs themselves. Might disenhancement alter the nature of this relationship? We do not know, but we note that stringent commitments to animal welfare should be upheld regardless of whether the pigs are disenhanced or not.

Perez et al argue that based on the 3R principles, xenotransplantation should be considered the least ethically acceptable approach to addressing the shortage of human organs for transplant. 4 Based on these principles, they argue that there are alternatives that would produce morally better outcomes and that the principle of replacement—where possible—demands the use of non-animal alternatives. In principle, we do not disagree because it is—all things being equal — morally better that human recipients receive a human or artificial organ. However, as we noted, xenotransplantation research is going to continue—as it has been on and off for more than 100 years—and we would only argue that it is morally better to use genetic disenhancement if it does. Perez et al offer three alternatives to address the organ shortage that they believe should be prioritised above xenotransplantation. In an ideal world, we could consider these kinds of either/or scenarios but the reality is that the alternatives will be used and invested in until the problem is addressed; that is, the supply can meet the demand. First, while public health policies have and continue to receive significant investment, kidney and heart disease continue to increase globally. For example, between 1990 and 2017, the prevalence of kidney disease increased by 33%. 5 Second, increasing the number of available human organs for donation via better family discussion and legislation has shown to have some benefits but this has had varied results and given that the disparity keeps widening—is insufficient. Third, in vitro organs like organoids and bioartificial organs, autotransplantation and replacement therapies—are similarly already prioritised and receiving significant global investment. In 2023, the artificial organ market was worth an estimated US$14.4 billion, 6 magnitudes greater than ever invested in xenotransplantation research. Perez et al write that xenotransplantation should only be a last resort—arguably, given the growing disparities and the thousands of deaths each year because of the organ shortage, we may already have reached that point.

Benatar in his response argues that we have failed to demonstrate the ethical permissibility of xenotransplantation using genetic disenhancement. 7 Benatar argues that if xenotransplantation is itself impermissible— a possibility we leave open in the paper—then disenhancement cannot be said to make it morally better or permissible . Rather, it would merely make it less bad . Benatar uses the analogy of medical participation in judicial executions. A doctor may be able to ensure that an execution is less painful for the prisoner being executed, but this does not render the execution morally permissible. Rather, it simply makes it less egregiously wrong.

We are willing to concede Benatar’s objection, namely, that if ‘xenotransplantation is, in principle, morally impermissible, then genetic disenhancement makes it ‘morally less bad’ rather than ‘morally better’. We would, however, note that it is far from clear that xenotransplantation is intrinsically unethical and that, in fact, concerns about the ethics of xenotransplantation typically focus on the pain experienced by animals who are being used as an organ source. As such, our argument is more plausible than Benatar suggests. Suppose the presence or absence of pain is the morally relevant feature for assessing the morality of xenotransplantation. In that case, it is consistent to conjecture that attenuating an animal’s pain apparatus could make xenotransplantation permissible or ‘morally better’.

• Bobier CA , et al
• Cordeiro JJ
• Rodriguez Perez C ,
• Louis-Maerten E ,
• Camenzind S , et al
• Purcell CA ,
• BCC Publishing

X @philosowhal, @hurstdanielj

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Linked Articles

• Feature article Genetic disenhancement and xenotransplantation: diminishing pigs’ capacity to experience suffering through genetic engineering Daniel Rodger Daniel J Hurst Christopher A Bobier Xavier Symons Journal of Medical Ethics 2024; - Published Online First: 23 Feb 2024. doi: 10.1136/jme-2023-109594

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