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Fast Facts on the Grounded Boeing 737 MAX 8

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On March 13, the Federal Aviation Administration issued an emergency order, prohibiting the operation of the Boeing Company Model 737-8 and Model 737-9 airliners. Both are in the aircraft manufacturer's 737 MAX family of planes . The two models share 'nearly identical design features,' wrote the agency.

The grounding of the 737 MAX models came after the March 10 crash of Ethiopian Airlines flight ET302, a Model 737 MAX 8. The flight went down six minutes after taking off from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, killing 149 passengers and eight crew members, according to the FAA order.

That catastrophe came less than five months after another 737 MAX 8 operated by Lion Air crashed into the Java Sea about 13 minutes after taking off from Jakarta, Indonesia. One-hundred eighty-four passengers and five crew died. The day before that crash, the very same Lion Air plane had experienced problems with its flight-control system. The crew was able to fix them thanks to an off-duty pilot who jumped in to assist, Bloomberg reports .

As we now know, information obtained in the investigation of the Ethiopian crash indicated similarities with the earlier accident "that warrant further investigation of the possibility of a shared cause for the two incidents that needs to be better understood and addressed," according to the FAA.

Boeing, meanwhile, has been working on upgrading the plane's flight control systems suspected to be contributing to the crashes. The company issued a March 13 statement expressing its support for the temporary suspension and said it was working with the investigators. Aviation regulators in numerous other countries also have grounded the aircraft. So no, you don't have to worry about your next flight being on a Boeing 737 MAX 8 or 737 MAX 9. In the U.S., American Airlines, Southwest Airlines and United Airlines all have 737 MAX 8s or MAX 9s in their fleets.

All this has cast a shadow over what has been one of Boeing's most successful aircraft, the latest generation of the more-than-half-century-old Boeing 737 airliner franchise.

The 737 MAX 8 was the first to be developed in Boeing's family of 737 MAX aircraft, according to a 2017 company media release . Designed for the single-aisle airliner market, it aims to provide better fuel efficiency, reduce carbon dioxide emissions and be quieter than the previous generation of 737s.

Boeing has touted its MAX series as the fastest-selling airplane in the company's history. It has received nearly 4,700 orders from 100 different customers since its introduction in 2017. It's meant to compete with models like Airbus' A320neo.

Here are some fast facts about the Boeing 737 MAX 8.

• The aircraft is 129 feet, 8 inches (39.5 meters) in length, with a wingspan of 117 feet, 10 inches (35.9 meters). It stands 40 feet, 4 inches (12.3 meters) tall.
• The aircraft's maximum takeoff weight is 181,200 pounds (82,191 kilograms), according to this 2014 Boeing brochure . That includes 6,853 gallons (25,941 liters) of jet fuel.
• It has a maximum range of 3,550 nautical miles (6,570 kilometers) , significantly farther than earlier 737s. For reference, the distance from New York City's LaGuardia Airport to Los Angeles International Airport is 2,146 nautical miles (3,974 kilometers).
• The aircraft's cruising speed is Mach 0.79, or 606.1 miles (975.4 kilometers) per hour.
• The 737 MAX 8 can hold a maximum of 210 passengers. That's a lot of people, but not as many as, say, the Airbus A380, which can hold more than 800.
• The aircraft is powered by twin LEAP-1B engines.
• It creates about 85 dBa of noise on takeoff, making it 40 percent quieter than the Boeing 737-800 series.
• The Boeing 737 MAX 8's average price is $121.6 million . Compare that with $418.4 million for a 747-8.
• The FAA certified the 737 MAX 8 in March 2017, after a year of testing. As the Seattle Times noted , some of that certification was assigned to Boeing itself to conduct, a practice that has occurred before in the industry.
• The first 737 MAX 8 delivery was to Malaysia-based Malindo Air in May 2017.

An industry analyst told National Public Radio that the crashes aren't likely to have that much effect on sales, since the aircraft are ordered years in advance. Boeing did, however, halt deliveries of several thousand 737 MAX aircraft.

The very first 737 was unveiled more than 50 years ago, on Jan. 17, 1967.

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Boeing 737 MAX Aircraft Overview

Boeing 737 Max 8 Seat Map and Overview

Boeing 737 Max 9 Seat Map and Overview

About the boeing max 737, history of the boeing 737 max family, design features, modifications of boeing max 737, boeing max 737 specifications, boeing 737 max seat map.

The Boeing 737 MAX family is an evolution of aviation technology, combining innovation and efficiency to redefine the standards of narrow-body aircraft. Born from the legacy of the highly successful Boeing 737 series, the MAX variant embodies advancements in aerodynamics, engine technology, and avionics.

At the heart of the Boeing 737 MAX’s performance is its cutting-edge CFM International LEAP-1B engines, which contribute to enhanced fuel efficiency and reduced environmental impact. The reimagined wing design, featuring distinctive advanced winglets, not only adds to the aircraft’s aesthetic appeal but significantly improves its overall fuel economy.

This family of aircraft encompasses various models, each tailored to meet specific market demands. The Boeing 737 MAX Aircraft offer airlines a range of seating capacities and flight capabilities, ensuring versatility for diverse routes and passenger preferences.

The Boeing 737 MAX represents a commitment to safety and technological advancement. Following a period of challenges that led to a global grounding, Boeing undertook extensive measures to address concerns and enhance the aircraft’s systems. Rigorous testing and software updates have been implemented to ensure the MAX’s reliability and adherence to the highest safety standards.

As the aviation industry moves towards a more sustainable future, the Boeing MAX 737 stands as a beacon of progress. Its state-of-the-art features not only elevate the passenger experience but also underscore Boeing’s dedication to pushing the boundaries of what is possible in modern commercial aviation. The MAX family continues to soar, embodying a harmonious blend of tradition and innovation in the skies.

Boeing 737 airplanes have long been classics of passenger aviation. They have been modernized many times, reaching higher levels of reliability and safety. Continuous work was done to identify design flaws, materials were changed and shapes were refined. However, the fundamentals remained the same. The great-granddaddy of the airplane Boeing 737 Max, known to all Boeing 737, saw the light of day in 1967.

The history of the Boeing MAX 737 family began with its announcement in 2011, when Boeing announced its intention to develop a new generation of narrow-body passenger airplanes. The main goal was to introduce new technologies, improve efficiency and preserve the continuity of traditions established by the previous generations of Boeing 737.

Boeing’s main competitor is Airbus. As of 2010, Airbus engineers were actively developing the new A320Neo, of which Boeing had no analogs at that time. Boeing management decided to urgently create a competitor in the segment of medium-range commercial airliners, otherwise the company was threatened with irrevocable loss of market positions. Customers, who had been loyal to Boeing up to that point, were already planning to completely replace their flight crews with new Airbus aircraft.

This was the impetus for the start of work on the Boeing 737 MAX Aircraft. At first, the plan was to remotorize and refine the classic 737 NG. But in the process it became clear: in order to remain competitive, so many changes should be made to the classic that the output would be a completely new airplane.

The engineers had several goals in mind, the main one being to improve fuel efficiency. This is the parameter that airline customers pay attention to first and foremost. The work began with the modernization of the line at the aircraft construction site — a sure sign that a fundamentally new aircraft was expected. From 2013 to 2015, testing of the revamped 737 was underway. Finally, in 2015, Boeing Commercial Airplanes unveiled the new Boeing 737-8 MAX, the base model of the family.

In summer, the Boeing 737-8 MAX made its first commercial flight under the control of pilots of the Malaysian airline. In Russia, the airplane appeared quite recently: in October 2018. S7 Airlines became the owner of the aircraft.

The MAX models differ from their predecessors:

• reduced fuel consumption due to quiet, fuel-efficient engines and 2.9 m high winglets (wing tips) with a special design;
• 20 cm larger front landing gear support;
• an exhaust gas cleaning system makes the Boeing 737 MAX 20 percent more environmentally friendly;
• innovative materials have reduced the weight of the airplane;
• redesigned lines increase aerodynamic drag;
• more comfortable cabin;
• new features in the cockpit: state-of-the-art equipment, large-format displays, ergonomic control panel.

Working in the Boeing 737 max cockpit is a real pleasure for the pilot. It is designed for a crew of two people. Each person has two large-format flat-screen monitors for assessing the situation during the flight. The airplane is equipped with surveillance cameras and its handling is really easy and reliable. All takeoff, landing and flight systems are redundant: if one fails, the other will be activated immediately.

Engineers took into account the comfort of pilots in the design, providing them with ergonomic seats, a convenient control panel and other nuances.

LEAP-1B from CFM International is an innovative development specifically for the 737 Max. Initially, the engines were planned only to be modified, taking as a basis the existing one on the Boeing 737 NG, but in the process of modernization a fundamentally new unit was created.

On-board electronics

The reliability of the control system is the foundation of aircraft safety. On the panel, as 40 years ago, there is a large number of buttons, toggle switches, gauges, lights and instruments that can only be understood by an experienced pilot. However, modern navigation and information displays enhance the pilot’s experience and give them a 21st century feel. Innovative on-board electronics simplify many tasks.

The latest flight recorders are installed on board the aircraft, which record data from modern computers.

Boeing 737 MAX encompass various versions of this innovative narrow-body passenger aircraft, designed to meet the diverse requirements of airlines and enhance the flight capabilities of air transportation.

Boeing 737 MAX 7: The Boeing 737 MAX 7 is the most compact variant in the family. Its extended range and modest seating capacity make it an ideal choice for airlines operating on short to medium-haul routes.

Boeing 737 MAX 8: The Boeing 737 MAX 8 stands as one of the most popular variants. Engineered to strike an optimal balance between capacity and range, this aircraft is the preferred choice for many airlines conducting long-haul flights.

Boeing 737 MAX 9: Representing an enlarged version, the Boeing 737 MAX 9 offers additional passenger seating. With an elongated fuselage, this variant supports increased capacity and covers a broad spectrum of routes.

Boeing 737 MAX 10: The largest in the family, the Boeing 737 MAX 10 provides even greater seating capacity, making it an ideal choice for airlines focused on maximizing passenger load.

Regardless of size and route type, the Boeing 737 MAX Aircraft family offers modern technology, efficiency, and comfort, positioning itself as a key player in the world of commercial aviation.

The developers conceived the interior space in such a way that it attracts passengers with its comfort, beauty and elegance of lines. The airplane has been updated with:

• wider, more attractive portholes;
• smooth contours of the walls;
• increased cabin space;
• individual speakers for better hearing information from flight attendants;
• modernized passenger seats;
• intuitive light control panel;
• an eye-pleasing color scheme of the cabin design.

The cabin Boeing 737 MAX seat map clearly illustrates the changes in space: a wide aisle between rows of seats, comfortable luggage shelves, and ample legroom compared to other airplanes in this class. In general, MAX models combine business and economy class seats.

Business Class

Business class provides more comfortable conditions due to the larger space. The seats are unique — they are wider and softer than in economy class, and are arranged two per row, which gives the impression of a larger corridor between them. Each seat is equipped with a monitor, which can be called a full-fledged mini-computer.

The passenger can rest behind a screen and even sleep on the bed, which can be easily made from each seat. The length of the bed is longer than a standard home bed — 198 cm, which is especially convenient for tall passengers. The comfort of the flight is ensured with advanced design and engineering solutions.

Economy class

The most popular seats among passengers are located in economy class. Despite the budgetary nature of such a flight, it will be made in comfort. The main «feature» of Boeing 737 MAX is monitors built into the backs of the seats, on which you can watch movies and cartoons. Most economy class passengers have never seen such a service after buying a ticket at an affordable price.

Economy class has comfortable seats with various settings and leg room. The Boeing 737 MAX seating configuration is designed to maximize passenger comfort and optimize the overall layout of the cabin.Three seats in a row. Each passenger gets a pillow and blanket.

Choosing the Best Seats

Boeing claims that all seats in the new 737 MAX are the best. As standard for passenger airliners, increased legroom is found in the front rows and near the emergency exits. Models in the first row are equipped with a special cradle for a comfortable flight with an infant.

If you don’t manage to get a seat in the first row, don’t be upset. The flight will be comfortable even in the middle or tail of the airplane. As usual, the most comfortable seats are in Business Class.

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Boeing 737-800/900

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BOEING 737 200–900

1967-present, odea developer.

The Boeing 737 was initially designed as a shortrange twin-jet transport as a replacement to the popular 727. Since its introduction in 1967, the 737 family has become the best-selling commercial jetliner in history with orders totaling more than 3,044 by 1993 from 159 customers in 81 countries. It differs in appearance from the 727 in that its two engines are mounted on the wings. The decision to build the 737 was announced in February 1965, and seven versions have been produced. The basic model 737-100 provides accommodations for 81-101 passengers plus baggage.

The 737-200 has a lengthened fuselage and accommodates up to 130 passengers with standard seating for 115. In addition to the basic JT8139 turbofan rated at 14,500 lbs., other available turbofans are the JT813-15 (15,500 lbs.) and J1813-17 (16,000 lbs.).

The 727-300 came along in late 1984 as a stretched version of the 200. The new design would also incorporate more economical and quieter GE engines. This was also the first Boeing to show off its new flattened, oval-shaped engine nacelles.

The 737-400 added another ten feet to the fuselage and upped the maximum number of seats to 188. The model entered service in 1988. The 737-500 received FAA certification in 1990, making it the last of the 737-300/400/500 variants. It was originally to be called the 737-1000, but was renamed the 500 before entering service. Only a foot longer than the 300 model, the 500 was offered as a replacement to the older fleet of 300s.

The 737-600/700 models are the smallest of Boeing's Next Generation family. They featured a new wing, a new tail section the more efficient CFM56-7B turbofans. The larger wing had more fuel capacity, allowing the 737 to become transcontinental.

Model 800/900s are the largest of the 737 family. Stretched fuselages allowed more seating, and more efficient engines, combined with an increase in fuel capacity made these model an immediate success. The cockpit crew of two also enjoys the same six LCD flat panel displays as found on the Boeing 777. The first deliver of an 800 came in April of 1998, and the first 900 was delivered in May 2001.

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Air Systems

Anti-ice & rain.

Engine anti-ice must be on prior to and during descent in all icing conditions, including temperatures below -40�C SAT.

Do not use wing anti-ice on the ground when the OAT is above 10C.

Minimum N1 for operating in icing conditions except for landing: 40% when TAT between 0 and 10C; 55% when TAT below 0C; 70% in moderate to severe icing conditions when TAT below -6.5C.

Window heat inop: max speed 250kts below 10,000ft.

Gravel Protect switch: ANTI-ICE position when using engine inlet anti-ice.

After any ground deicing/anti-icing of the horizontal stabilizer using Type II or Type IV fluids, airspeed must be limited to 270 KIAS until the crew has been informed that applicable maintenance procedures have been accomplished that would allow exceedance of 270 KIAS. Once the applicable maintenance procedures have been accomplished, exceeding 270 KIAS is permissible only until the next application of Type II or Type IV deicing/anti-icing fluids.

• Ground air connected and isolation valve open
• Engine no. 1 bleed valve open
• Isolation and engine no. 2 bleed valves open.

APU bleed valve may be open during engine start, but avoid engine power above idle.

Autopilot/Flight Director System

Use of autopilot not authorised for takeoff or landing.

Do not use the autopilot roll channel above 30,000ft with yaw damper inoperative.

Do not use autopilot pitch channel above 0.81M with hydraulic system A or B depressurised.

Do not use ALT HOLD mode when Captain's alternate static source is selected.

Use of aileron trim with autopilot engaged is prohibited.

Do not engage the autopilot for takeoff below 1000ft AGL.

For single channel operation, the autopilot shall not be engaged below 50ft AGL.

Maximum allowable wind speeds, when conducting a dual channel Cat II or Cat III landing predicated on autoland operations, are:

• Headwind 25 knots
• Crosswind 25 knots
• Tailwind: 10knots

Autoland capability may only be used with flaps 30 or 40 and both engines operative.

Do not engage the autopilot for takeoff below 400ft AGL.

For single channel operation during approach, the autopilot shall not remain engaged below 50ft AGL.

The autopilot must be disengaged before the airplane descends more than 50 feet below the minimum descent altitude (MDA) unless it is coupled to an ILS glide slope and localizer or in the go-around mode. (JAA Rule).

Maximum allowable wind speeds, when conducting a dual channel Cat II or Cat III landing predicated on autoland operations, are: . Headwind 25 knots . Crosswind 25 knots . Tailwind: Varies between 0 and 15kts depending upon field elevation and flap setting.

Maximum and minimum glideslope angles are 3.25 degrees and 2.5 degrees respectively.

Communications

The ACARS is limited to the transmission and receipt of messages that will not create an unsafe condition if the message is improperly received, such as the following conditions:

. the message or parts of the message are delayed or not received,

. the message is delivered to the wrong recipient, or

. the message content may be frequently corrupted.

However, Pre-Departure Clearance, Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service, Oceanic Clearances, Weight and Balance and Takeoff Data messages can be transmitted and received over ACARS if they are verified per approved operational procedures.

With HGS 2350 and polar navigation: Do not use HUD System at latitudes greater than 85 degrees latitude or when the Heading Reference Switch is in the TRUE position.

Flight Controls

Flight management, navigation.

• Do not use the terrain display for navigation.
• Do not use the look-ahead terrain alerting and terrain display functions within 15 nm of takeoff, approach or landing at an airport not contained in the GPWS terrain database

Hydraulic Power

Minimum of 760kg fuel required in respective tank for hydraulic pump operation. Minimum of 88% required for despatch.

Landing Gear

Performance data computer system (1/200 only).

Fuel management and range calculations presented by the PDCS have not been evaluated by the FAA.

Verify that the representative takeoff EPR limits displayed on the CDU and EPR indicators agree with the predetermined limits obtained from the flight manual.

Power Plant

CFM56-7 limits: Maximum and minimum limits are red. Caution limits are amber. Pneumatic pressure prior to starter engagement: 30psi -1/2psi per 1000' amsl. (737-1/500 Only) Starter duty cycle 1st attempt: 2min on, 20sec off 2nd & subsequent attempt: 2min on, 3min off Engine ignition must be on for: Takeoff, Landing, Operation in heavy rain and Anti-ice operation. Intentional selection of reverse thrust in flight is prohibited.

Wind Limits for T/O & Landing

Contaminated runways, min width for snow clearance.

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List of most popular commercial airlners by cruising speed

Cruising speeds of the most common types of commercial airliners (in knots).

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September 2016

2012 to 2016

This data displays the average cruising speed of the most commonly used airliners in the world. Where data for multiple models within a family exists, the average cruising speed is given. Data on the cruising speed of the Embraer ERJ 145 Family was not available and therefore it does not appear on this chart. * Average combined cruising speed of Boeing-777 models 200ER, 200LR, 300, and 300ER. ** Cruising speed of a Boeing 737-400. *** Average combined cruising speed of Embraer models E170, E175, E175-E2, E190, E190-E2, E195, and E195-E2. **** Average combined cruising speed of Airbus A340 models 200, 300, 500, and 600. ***** Average combined cruising speed of Boeing 737 models 600, 700C, 700ER, 800, and 900ER. ****** Average combined cruising speed of Bombardier CRJ models 100, 200, 440, 700, 705, 900, and 1000. ******* Average combined cruising speed of ATR 72 models 200, 210, and 600.

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Updates on Boeing’s actions to strengthen safety and quality

About the boeing 737 max family.

The 737 MAX family delivers enhanced efficiency, improved environmental performance and increased passenger comfort to the single-aisle market. Incorporating advanced technology winglets and efficient engines, the 737 MAX family offers excellent economics, reducing fuel use and emissions by 20 percent while producing a 50 percent smaller noise footprint than the airplanes it replaces. Additionally, 737 MAX family offers up to 14 percent lower airframe maintenance costs than the competition. Passengers will enjoy the Boeing Sky Interior, highlighted by modern sculpted sidewalls and window reveals, LED lighting that enhances the sense of spaciousness and larger pivoting overhead storage bins.

Technical Specs

737-10: Most Profitable Large Single Aisle

737 MAX By Design

Discover what goes into creating the industry-leading technology of the 737 MAX family.

737 MAX Gallery

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Our flagship aircraft

Boeing 737-8 MAX

As our most fuel-efficient aircraft yet, the Boeing 737-8 MAX plays an instrumental role in our fleet, transporting up to 189 guests at a time safely and efficiently. The sustainability and comfort of this aircraft make it ideal for domestic, transborder, and international flying to popular destinations

Environmentally sustainable

Delivering approximately 13 per cent more fuel efficiency than the Boeing 737 Next-Generation aircraft, the efficiencies built into the 737-8 MAX aircraft help us minimize fuel and operating costs, reduce emissions and maximize efficiency through added guest capacity, enabling WestJet to carry more guests with less aircraft per route.

Spacious seating and interior storage

The Boeing 737-8 MAX is built to maximize efficiency with more overhead bin space, making it easier for guests to comfortably store carry-on luggage. The Boeing Sky Interior is designed to create a more spacious and comfortable feel with flowing curves and full-length sculpted walls.

Quieter engine

The Boeing 737-8 MAX is uniquely configured to optimize guest comfort, with quiet engine technology used to reduce engine noise by up to 40 per cent as compared to the Boeing Next-Generation 737.

Strategic player

A key pillar of the WestJet Group’s strategy is leveraging the Boeing 737 MAX aircraft as a driver of growth. WestJet’s fleet includes a total of 32 Boeing 737 MAX aircraft, with another 62 on order. With a focus on domestic, transborder and sun-flying capacity , the Boeing 737 MAX aircraft are an integral part of WestJet’s future.

Specifications

• 737-8 MAX layout 1
• 737-8 MAX layout 2
• 737-8 MAX layout 3
• 737-8 MAX layout 4

Inflight services

✔ In-seat 120V AC power, USB-A sockets

✔ Food and beverages (offering varies by destination, flight duration

✔ Inflight entertainment on WestJet Connect (via your smartphone, tablet or laptop)

✔ Wi-Fi access (for a fee)

WestJet Connect available

Use the WestJet App to access WestJet Connect , your portal to endless on-demand entertainment options : Movies, TV shows, music, LinkedIn Learning courses and more. 

Seat information Expand to see seat pitch, width, recline, Exit Rows and power offerings for all our cabins

• Seat pitch is the distance from the back of each seat to the back of the seat behind it. More seat pitch  usually equates to more legroom 
• Some seat widths vary from 40 cm / 15.7 in wide to 43 cm / 16.8 in wide
• Seats in row 12, 30 do not recline 
• Row 4 pitch: 91 cm / 36 in. Row 5,6 pitch: 89 cm / 35 in. Row 7 pitch: 86 cm / 34 in 
• Row 4 recline: 10 cm / 4 in. Row 5 recline: 7.6 cm / 3 in. Rows 6, 7 recline: 5 cm / 2 in 

Accessibility information Expand to see aisle width, movable aisle armrest locations and more

• Guests with special needs  
• Assistance services
• Special seating accommodations
• Wheelchairs, scooters and mobility aids

Aircraft information Expand to see guest capacity, cabin configurations, technical specifications and more

✔ Food and beverages (offering varies by destination, flight duration)

Limited services

Our economy only 737-8 MAX aircraft are not equipped with in-seat AC power or USB sockets, WestJet Connect or in-flight Wi-Fi.

• Seat pitch is the distance from the back of each seat to the back of the seat behind it. More seat pitch usually equates to more legroom 
• Some Economy seat pitches vary from 74 cm / 29 in 
• Some Economy seat widths vary from 41 cm / 16 in wide to 43 cm / 16.8 in wide
• Seats in rows 14, 32 do not recline 

• Some Economy seat pitches vary from 71 cm / 28 in to 76 cm / 30 in
• Some Economy seat widths vary: 41 cm / 16.3 in wide

4. Aisle width ranges from 41 cm / 16.3 in to 45 cm / 17.8 in

• Some Economy seat pitches vary from 74 cm / 29 in to 81 cm / 32 in

4. Aisle width ranges from 41 cm / 16.1 in to 43 cm / 16.9 in

Flight guide

Explore your next aircraft

WestJet’s aircraft are designed with safety, comfort and convenience in mind. Each aircraft offers a unique set of characteristics to meet the needs of our guests, with a range of different offerings onboard each aircraft for different routes. Explore WestJet’s flight guide for more information about our inflight food and beverage offerings, Wi-Fi availability, the WestJet Connect entertainment system, in-seat power and USB availability, plus other in-flight offerings specific to each type of aircraft, cabin and route.

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Simple Flying

The operational factors that influence a jetliner's cruise speed.

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• Aircraft cruise speeds vary based on optimization of fuel burn, range, and efficiency.
• Jet engine efficiency increases with altitude and speed due to factors like air density and thrust.
• The range of a jet aircraft depends on speed, drag, and fuel efficiency, impacted by factors like weight and wind.

Have you ever noticed varying cruise speeds during flight? Taking a quick look at the in-flight screen (on most long-haul aircraft), one can notice that the aircraft cruise speed typically varies between 480 mph and 550 mph (780 - 900 km/h) during flight. Why do aircraft not fly at the maximum cruise speed they are designed for? There are several factors that determine how the aircraft's cruise speed is set.

Most jetliners cruise in the range of 475 to 550 knots (800 - 900 km/hr). Pilots must think from the performance standpoint when configuring the aircraft for flight, and identifying the optimum cruise speed based on different parameters. Cruise speed determines how much fuel the aircraft will burn over the course of flight, how long the aircraft can stay airborne, and most importantly, how far (in distance) the aircraft can travel given all parameters.

This article takes a deep dive into how an aircraft's cruise speed is determined and what factors play a role in optimizing the cruise speed for specific flights, while reflecting on the information from Stratos Jets and the Defense Technical Information Center.

The efficiency of a jet engine

The engines are an important part of the aircraft as they generate the thrust that is required to push the aircraft forward. The efficiency of a jet engine is measured mainly by calculating the efficiency of the kinetic energy that is converted to propulsive work. This is called the propulsive efficiency of the engine. It can be written as below:

• Propulsive Efficiency = Wa / We
• Wa = Work done on moving the aircraft
• We = Work done by engines to accelerate the airflow

After derivation, the formula for propulsive efficiency can be written as:

• Propulsive Efficiency = 2V/(V + Vj)

In the equation, V is the speed of the aircraft, and Vj is the speed of the air coming out of the engines.

From the equation, it can be seen that as the speed of the aircraft (V) increases, the propulsive efficiency of the engine increases. This is because as the aircraft accelerates, less and less work is done on the airflow by the engine to get it out of the engine at a faster speed. Imagine a jet aircraft idling its engine during the taxi phase of the flight.

Even at a low forward speed (taxi speed), the engines continue to expel the air at a very high velocity. So, at a low aircraft speed, a lot of energy is wasted just keeping the engine running without seeing much of an effect on the aircraft. As the aircraft speeds up, it goes closer and closer to the exit velocity of the engine, and the aircraft uses its engines more efficiently.

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As the altitude increases, there is an increase in True Air Speed (TAS) of the aircraft. Because of this, there is a marked increase in the propulsive efficiency of the engine. One other factor also comes into effect. With altitude, the air density is lowered. This means that the compressor of the engine can rotate at a higher speed without reaching its mechanical limit. This allows for a higher compression of airflow inside the engines, which again improves efficiency. The colder air also helps because it keeps the turbines at a lower temperature so that the engine is kept from reaching its thermal limits.

The final effect is due to compressibility. As the aircraft speeds up above 0.2 Mach, the airflow starts to compress ahead of the engine. This highly compressed dense air gives a thrust boost, increasing the efficiency as the work that has to be done by the compressor is reduced. This is known as the ram effect.

So, it can be concluded that to make a jet engine efficient, low temperatures, high speed, and high altitude become very important. This is why jet aircraft cruise at very high altitudes.

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The cruise lift-to-drag ratio determines flight performance during the cruise.

The thrust drag curve

• Total drag = Parasite drag + Lift-induced drag
• Parasite drag increases with airspeed
• Lift-induced drag decreases with airspeed

There are two major sources of drag on an aircraft - the parasite drag and induced drag. Parasite drag is proportional to the square of the speed, and thus, as the speed increases, the parasite drag increases. The induced drag, on the other hand, is a byproduct of lift. It decreases with an increase in aircraft speed, as with an increase in speed, a smaller angle of attack is required to generate lift.

The induced drag and parasite drag can be shown in graphical form with drag on the y-axis and the aircraft speed on the x-axis. The drag can be renamed 'thrust required,' as the thrust required is the amount of excess thrust required to overcome the drag. The graph for thrust required and speed is shown below:

As can be seen in the graph, an increase in speed increases the total drag, and a decrease in speed decreases the total drag. A speed can be derived from the curve called Vmd (minimum drag speed). This speed is the speed that is found at the lowest point on the curve. Flying above or below this speed increases the total drag on the aircraft.

It is also important to understand the effects of certain conditions on the drag curve. For instance, an increase in weight increases the induced drag as the aircraft is required to be flown at a higher angle of attack. The increase in induced drag moves the total drag curve up and right, showing a marked increase in drag. This, in effect, increases the speed for Vmd. Similarly, an increase in parasite drag by lowering the flaps, and the landing gear moves the curve left and up. This increases the total drag, and the speed for Vmd reduces.

The range of a jet aircraft

The range is, very simply speaking, the fuel mileage of an aircraft. When we say range, we are talking about how far an aircraft can travel with a given amount of fuel. The range formula can be written as:

• Range = Distance (nautical miles) / Fuel (kg)

This formula is not very useful for deducing much about range. So, it can be written as:

• Range = Distance (nautical miles per hour) / Fuel Flow (kg per hour)

The distance per hour is equal to speed or the True Air Speed (TAS), and thus it can also be written as:

• Range = TAS / Fuel Flow .

This range is known as the Specific Range (SR). Hence, the equation becomes:

• Specific Range (SR) = TAS / Fuel Flow

The fuel flow can be further expanded as follows:

• Fuel Flow = Fuel Flow per Unit Thrust x Total Thrust Required.

Fuel flow per unit thrust is called Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC). So, it can be written as:

• Fuel Flow = SFC x Total Thrust Required

The total thrust required is also known as drag. So, for a jet aircraft, the specific range can be given as:

• Specific Range (SR) = TAS / (SFC x Drag)

From the final equation for SR, it is seen that an increase in speed increases the range. Similarly, a decrease in drag and SFC also increases the range.

The SFC reduces with an increase in altitude due to the increase in efficiency of jet engines, which was explained in detail previously. And the total drag also decreases with an increase in altitude due to reduced air density.

It was previously shown that to fly for minimum drag, an aircraft is required to fly at the speed that corresponds to the lowest drag. We found out that this speed occurs at the bottom of the total drag curve and is known as the minimum drag speed, Vmd. We are also quite aware that to increase the SR of an aircraft, the drag must be at a minimum.

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Interestingly, the SR is also increased by increasing forward speed. So, does SR increase if we go above Vmd? Let us look at the total drag curve below.

The curve is quite flat at the bottom. And this means that the speed of the aircraft can be slightly increased with a small drag penalty. This increase in drag does negatively affect the SR. However, the increased speed counters for this, by increasing the SR. The most efficient speed for SR occurs at the tangent point of the drag curve at about 1.32 Vmd. So, for a jet aircraft, the speed for the best SR is 1.32 Vmd. This speed is more commonly known as the speed of Maximum Range Cruise or MRC.

Many factors can affect the MRC speed. An increase in weight increases the drag on the aircraft and moves the total drag curve up and right. This also increases the speed for MRC. So, to fly at MRC, a heavier aircraft requires a higher speed. A change in aircraft configuration (lowering of flaps and gear) moves the total drag curve up and left, increasing total drag and, at the same time, the speed for MRC reduces.

The wind also affects the SR. A tailwind has the effect of increasing the ground speed of the aircraft. This means that the aircraft covers more distance in a given amount of fuel flow. This increases the range of the aircraft. A headwind reduces the SR as it reduces the ground speed of the aircraft, which means that it travels less distance at a given amount of fuel flow.

The MRC speed is rarely flown operationally. Besides, the aircraft can be flown at a speed that is 4% more than MRC with just a 1% reduction in SR. This speed is called LRC (Long Range Cruise) speed. This is shown in the graph below. The graph shows that when SR is plotted against speed, the top of the graph is nearly flat where speed can be increased a bit without a great loss in SR. In airline operations, the speed during a cruise is a little more complex. It may be something between MRC and LRC or sometimes even higher than LRC. This will be discussed next.

The Cost Index and Operational Cruise Speed

It was explained in the previous paragraphs that for an aircraft to fly at the most efficient speed, the drag must be low and, at the same time, it was seen that an increase in speed increases the efficiency of the flight by reducing the time spent in the air. All of this concerned one single factor. It was all about reducing fuel flow.

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When looking at the operations of an airline, fuel alone does not account for the money that is spent. Money is also spent on paying the pilots, cabin crew, and engineers. Airlines also bleed money when delays occur and when the aircraft is not utilized as much as routine maintenance for which it gets grounded.

These are all time-related costs. That is, these costs can be greatly reduced by reducing the time the aircraft spends in the air. So, we can come up with a relationship between fuel costs and time costs. This relationship can be written as an equation:

Cost Index (CI) = Cost of Time (CT)/Cost of Fuel (CF)

An increase in CT increases the CI and an increase in CF reduces the CI. If an airline wants to save fuel costs, it wants its aircraft to be flown at a low CI and if it wants to save time-related costs, it wants its aircraft to be flown at a high CI. These days, modern aircraft flight management systems can take in CI data and fly the aircraft at the optimum speed. The airline calculates the best CI for their operations based on their operational costs and gives it to their pilots. During pre-flight, the pilots enter this CI into the flight management system and the aircraft flies at the speed of this CI.

What are your thoughts on the determination of cruise speed of flights and various parameters that are considered when calculating the cruise performance of an aircraft? Share your thoughts in the comments section.